Senate Inquiry into
Gulf St Vincent

Submission by
The Conservation Council
of South Australia Inc
3 February 2000


By


Michelle Grady
and James Brook
Conservation   Council   of   SA


1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE CONSERVATION COUNCIL OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
1.2 SCOPE OF THIS SUBMISSION
2 THE STATUS OF GULF ST. VINCENT
2.1 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF GULF ST. VINCENT
2.2 THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN GULF ST. VINCENT
3 THREATS TO THE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY OF GULF ST. VINCENT
3.1 POLLUTION
3.1.1 Oil Pollution
3.1.2 Nutrients
3.1.3 Industrial Pollution
3.1.4 Organotin Antifoulants
3.1.5 Marine litter
3.1.6 DiffusePollution
3.2 DIRECT HABITAT DAMAGE AND DESTRUCTION
3.2.1 Coastal construction
3.2.2 Disruption of natural water flows
3.2.3 Prawn trawling
3.3 OVERHARVESTING OF LIVING RESOURCES
3.4 INTRODUCED MARINE PESTS AND OTHER INVASIVE ORGANISMS
4 RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
4.1.1 Protection of Representative Samples of Ecosystems
4.1.2 Protection of internationally important wetlands
4.1.3 Protection of rare, endangered and threatened species
4.1.4 Promotion of ecotourism
4.2 POLLUTION
4.2.1 Oil
4.2.2 Nutrients
4.2.3 Industrial pollution
4.2.4 Tributyltin
4.2.5 Marine litter
4.3 CONTROL OF COASTAL AND OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT
4.4 ECOSYSTEM BASED FISHERY MANAGEMENT
4.5 ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE
4.6 CONTROL OF INTRODUCED MARINE PESTS
5 CONCLUSION
Appendix A: Sites recommended for increased protection
Appendix B: Potential Ramsar wetlands currently under threat
Appendix C: Towards an oil spill prevention and response plan
Appendix D: Regulation of tributyltin use
Appendix E: Introduced Marine Species in Gulf St Vincent
GLOSSARY
references


INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Conservation Council of South Australia
The Conservation Council of South Australia (CCSA) is SA's peak non-government community conservation organisation. Formed in 1971, it represents over 50 of the state's diverse environmental groups, from big to small, local to national, specialised to general, land and sea.

1.2 Scope of this Submission
In line with the terms of reference of the Inquiry, the submission will address:

  1. the state of the environment of the Gulf of St Vincent,
  2. the expected impacts on that environment,
  3. the possible enhancements to protection measures in relation to that environment
For the purpose of the submission, Gulf St Vincent (GSV) will be defined as the area defined by the 'St Vincent Gulf' (sic) bioregion in the most recent version of the Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia (IMCRA) (ANZECC 1998), thus including Encounter Bay and the north coast of Kangaroo Island.

Part (a) will not be given comprehensive coverage in this submission, as it has been addressed by a number of state and national State of the Environment Reports. However, examples from State of the Environment (SoE) reporting are cited in an examination of human impacts on GSV which addresses part (b).

However, the most important part of the submission is the recommendation of a suitable management framework and list of measures to enhance the environmental protection of GSV, thus addressing part (c).


The Status of Gulf St Vincent

2.1 The Significance of Gulf St Vincent
Gulf St Vincent has a diverse range of habitats and is a globally significant region for temperate biodiversity, exhibiting very high levels of endemism relative to the Southern temperate coastline of Australia, which itself has an endemism - or uniqueness of species - of over 85%, compared to only 15% in tropical areas such as the Great Barrier Reef (Edyvane 1999a).

Gulf St Vincent contains some of the most extensive areas of temperate mangrove forests and seagrass meadows in Australia - habitats of considerable ecological and economic importance. Other biologically significant areas include Backstairs Passage (possibly of global importance), Orontes Shelf, and six distinct wetlands of national importance (Edyvane 1999b).

The Gulf is also the home to more than 1 million South Australians which depend on it for a variety of recreational and commercial uses, most of which in turn depend upon its biological values and general environmental health.

2.2 The State of the Environment in Gulf St Vincent
In recent years there have been a number of reports informing on the environmental status of GSV, including:

3 Threats to the Ecological Sustainability of Gulf St. Vincent

Over a period of 160 years many human activities have combined to make significant and detrimental changes to coastal ecosystems which had evolved during a period of geological and anthropogenic isolation extending 65 million years.

The major ongoing impacts on the ecological sustainability of GSV are:

Many of these impacts can not be quantified, due to a lack of knowledge and research. However, examples drawn from SoE reports and other sources make it clear that collectively they threaten the ecological sustainability of GSV.

The Conservation Council also notes that a number of other submissions being made to the Inquiry cover specific 'hot spot' issues in the Gulf, and therefore, won't be repeated in this submission.

3.1 Pollution
Poor water quality can directly poison organisms, cause the loss of valuable reef, seagrass, and mangrove habitats or endanger human health.

3.1.1 Oil Pollution
The Commonwealth Parliament 1992 "Ships of Shame" report on ship safety notes that 48.5% of oil pollution was the result of shipping and terminal operations, and states that "disaster is never far away and the prevention of pollution of the sea by oil is a far better option than cure".
This quote is highly applicable to the Mobil Adelaide Refinery at Port Stanvac, commissioned in 1963, which provides much of the state's petrol and diesel needs. Approximately 4,300 million litres of crude are discharged per year, pumped ashore at a rate of up to 6 million litres per hour, and over a hundred ships use the facilities each year. Given the scale of operations and the age of the refinery there is potential for a major disaster to occur. Such a disaster would be devastating to the local marine environment. A major accident could also jeopardise the states supply of petrol and diesel needs causing undue hardship to industry and South Australian businesses. Major spills to date include:

Periodic SoE reports show on average three spills annually, of the order of a thousand litres. The long-term, chronic effects of the frequent minor spills at the oil-handling facilities at Port Stanvac on the surrounding environment and nearby reef systems are unknown. The amount of oil entering the marine environment from unmonitored sources may also be significant.

In 1991 and 1992, 23 hectares of mangroves were killed or totally defoliated in the heavily affected areas and show no signs of recovery (EPA 1998).

3.1.2 Nutrients
Coastal eutrophication, one of the highest-priority marine pollution issues throughout SA, results from the discharge of excess nutrients arising from:

This can lead to the following impacts:

  1. seagrass loss or degradation due to smothering by epiphytic algae;
    Metropolitan coast seagrass cover declined from 80% in 1949 to 28% in 1993 and is continuing to decline with an estimated total of 4000 hectares of seagrass area lost (plus an additional 5000 hectares of selective loss). Other areas of concern are Port River at Outer Harbour, areas between St Kilda and Port Gawler, Nepean Bay (Kangaroo Island).

  2. loss of mangroves from smothering by algae (Ulva blooms retard growth of mangrove seedlings, smother and kill aerial roots of established mangroves);
    main areas of concern are St Kilda and Port Gawler, where dieback began six years after the start of the adjacent Bolivar sewage outfall with 250 hectares dead since 1956 (EPA 1998). This is the only case of sewage-induced mangrove loss in Australia.

  3. Increased frequency of plankton blooms (including 'red tides') caused when high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus promote excessive growth of seaweeds and planktonic algae.
    Annual blooms in the Port River have been linked to high levels of nutrients from Port Adelaide sewage treatment works and stormwater runoff. Blooms of toxic species of dinoflagellates (eg. Alexandrium minutum) can cause the fatal condition of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning in humans if contaminated shellfish are eaten.

3.1.3 Industrial Pollution
Examples include:
  1. significant environmental impacts of thermal pollution into the Port River and Barker Inlet Aquatic Reserve - the Torrens Island power station discharges approximately 3.9 million m3 of heated effluent per day. Although there is existing thermal pollution from Torrens Island (which has caused changes to the fish species composition at Barker Inlet), the increase in heated water that will be issued from the new power station at Pelican Report is further concern for the Port River-Barker Inlet system, and will encourage the proliferation of pest species, among several other potentially significant impacts. The thermal effluent disposal contravenes the Environmental Protection Act in two places.

  2. heavy metal and organochlorine accumulation in fish, crustaceans and marine mammals in the Port River region - fish, squid and crustaceans show elevated levels of lead, copper and zinc (Olsen 1988, Boxall 1994, Hamman 1994, Long 1996), while pesticide and organochlorine residues exceed national health standards for Blue Crabs, snook and are elevated in dolphins (Olsen 1988, Burzacott 1996). It is worth noting also that last year dolphin researchers found the world's highest levels of mercury in a dead dolphin from the Port River.

  3. Ecologically-significant levels of heavy metal contamination (from both point sources and diffuse sources) in sediments and biota, particularly in the upper parts of both gulfs (Ward and Young 1982, Harbison 1984, Ward et al. 1986, Kemper et al. 1994). The metal contamination of the Port River area has been mentioned in numerous management reports during the past decade (including the multi-agency Barker Inlet Management Plan, and most of the MFP reports). It seems that the issue is still not being addressed in legislation or management.

3.1.4 Organotin Antifoulants

Antifoulants are paints used to prevent marine organisms from attaching themselves to surfaces, such as boats and aquaculture farming equipment. They contain various compounds, many of which are highly toxic, hence harmful and dangerous to the marine environment. These compounds, for example metals and Organotin chemicals, leach slowly from the paint and bio-accumulate in the organisms. This adversely affects the growth, reproduction and population numbers of marine organisms. Tributyltin (TBT) is highly toxic, has effects on marine life at levels as low as parts per trillion.

In the Port River, 100% of populations of the gastropod Lepsiella venosa show severe reproductive abnormalities (ie. neogastropod imposex) (Nias et al.. 1993).

3.1.5 Marine litter

Marine litter impacts on marine life, particularly mammals and seabirds, through entanglement and ingestion.

Despite the MARPOL Convention on the disposal of plastics at sea, marine litter is still a problem. About half of the ocean litter is related to fishing vessels near the coast and continental shelf, consisting of plastics, rope, netting and fishing gear (Humane Society Australia – pending 1999 HSI nomination of Marine Debris as a Threatening Process under the Commonwealth ESP Act).

3.1.6 Diffuse pollution

One of them major impacts in nearshore environments in GSV is the inadequately controlled diffuse sources of pollution from both urban and rural areas, including (i) solid wastes, litter, domestic and agricultural chemicals, fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides, vehicle pollutants, oils, animal wastes, bacteria, soil and dust (see Lewis et al. 1998).

Among other impacts of diffuse-source, land-based outflows, is sedimentation, which is a continuing problem in GSV. There are numerous impacts of sedimentation, such as decreased water quality, smothering or benthic organisms, and potential degradation of macroalgal reefs. Sedimentation in S.A. gulfs is due to combined sources, including particulates from storm water, river catchment outflows, and other, land-based discharges associated with coastal development and soil mobilisation. There is some evidence to suggest that turbidity (from stormwater and sedimentation) has caused changes to the species composition of near-shore reefs in the metropolitan area (Cheshire et al. 1997).

Sedimentation is also a problem in the Rapid Bay-Normanville area. Reef Watch workers have noted problems with sedimentation and reef smothering in the mid-coast area, probably due to the dredging at Port Stanvac.

A local example of sedimentation is the recent development of vacant land for housing in the Marino Rocks coastal area, which entailed removal of sediment from a cut-off creek mouth, and consequent runoff of sediment following rain, onto Marino Rocks reef (causing benthic smothering). This type of impact probably occurs regularly in parts of GSV, and is largely unnoticed and unattended by regulatory authorities.

3.2 Direct Habitat Damage and Destruction

The loss of habitat is the most significant threat to biodiversity world-wide. In addition to the habitat losses through eutrophication discussed in 3.1.2, further losses occur from direct modification of coastal and marine environments.

3.2.1Coastal construction

3.2.2 Disruption of natural water flows
3.2.3 Prawn trawling

Trawling impacts that need to be considered in S.A. include the following:
  1. By-catch: In South Australian prawn trawl fishing, by-catch includes trash fish that are not valued by industry; juveniles of commercially and recreationally significant fish species; blue crabs and other crustaceans; sponges; ascidians; echinoderms; mollusks and other taxa. Carrick (from SARDI) has some data on this, but most of the bycatch is not quantified, for various reasons.

  2. Impacts on Benthic Structure, Habitat Quality, and Species Composition and Abundance: No objective studies of trawling-induced benthic damage have yet been completed in South Australia, but there is increasing evidence from other temperate ecosystems that benthic trawling can have significant negative impacts on habitat quality and benthic biodiversity.

    For example, a field study by Collie et al. (1997) showed that sites which are undisturbed by trawling have higher biomass, species abundance, and species diversity than disturbed sites. Recently, Prena et al. (1999) showed that otter trawling can cause significant decreases in the abundance and diversity of benthic fauna such as crabs, basket stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, brittle stars and soft corals. Bottom trawling gear (particularly in rocky habitats), has demonstrably flattened out bottom topography, decreased habitat complexity, altered species composition, and reduced benthic biodiversity (Dayton et al. 1995, Engel and Kvikek 1998).

  3. Trawling over both soft and hard sea bottoms, disturbs the benthic topography and can result in increased turbidity from benthic damage and sediment mobilisation (Dayton et al. 1995, Collie et al. 1997, Engel and Kvikek 1998, Prena et al. 1999). One of the most significant effects of benthic habitat damage from fishing is the destruction of living benthic structures, such as corals, bryozoans, sponges, seagrass, macro-algal stands and calcareous algae. Such structures provide physical support for marine communities, and help to maintain biodiversity.

    Apart from reduction in abundance and spatial cover of these types of biota, their removal can adversely affect the survival of fish and invertebrates that used the benthic structures for recruitment, feeding, and/or shelter from predators. In New Zealand, for example, destruction of bryozoan beds by trawlers was correlated with a reduction in the number of juvenile fish of commercial importance, which relied upon the bryozoan habitat (Bradstock and Gordon 1983).

    The recent FRDC fish habitat research report (Cappo et al.), as well as CSIRO, AFMA, and Australian Maritime College all have information about the latest bycatch reduction/ benthic impact reduction technologies for trawlers (so called "green trawling" gear). Industry needs to implement these advances in gear technology in South Australia. Perhaps other measures could also be considered, such as periodic rescheduling of trawling away from areas where schools of juveniles (e.g. snapper) are running, and conservation volunteers on trawlers during the fishing season, to return marine fish and mobile invertebrate animals to the water before they die on the sorting table.

3.2.4 Other impacts
  1. Damage to reefs from boats and anchors, and Scuba diving activity, is another potential concern that has not been adequately monitored in GSV. The new national mooring policy is relevant here in relation to anchor impacts. Also, nominal diving fees (e.g. reef tax) have been successfully used in Queensland, New South Wales and overseas (e.g. in North America, and Caribbean), to provide funds for education about diver impacts, and for monitoring work.

  2. The issue of breakwaters and their effects on coastal dynamics, wave patterns, sand movement etc needs to be considered. The effects of breakwaters are significant in GSV, as we all have seen. Alternatives to these archaic engineering solutions should be sought, in order to keep up with world's best practice.

  3. It is worth noting the recent proposal to remove the cement from Sturt River banks (and other catchment management activities initiated by local councils), to re-establish wetland ecosystems; to control pollution entering and moving through surburban and rural creeks and rivers, and for reducing the consequent diffuse-source pollution that reaches GSV from these water bodies. Catchment management solutions at a metro level should receive more financial, technical and planning support from the state government, since diffuse-source pollution is one of the greatest detriments to GSV.

  4. Jetty management is another minor issue (e.g. the sale of jetties, and lack of commitment by regional councils to maintain them). The impending removal of the end of Rapid Bay jetty is a pertinent example, considering its significance to local groups of seadragons, and its apparent growing national and reputation for diving/tourism in this regard). Jetty "sponsorship by local divers and fishers is one possibility for improving the protection and management of jetties.

  5. The use of jet skiis in GSV is another issue, which has been met with a poorly co-ordinated response from both state government and local councils. Imkpacts form jet skis include acoustic marine pollution, hydrocarbon pollution, safety issues for beach/near-shore users and noise pollution concern from beach users and coastal residents. There are many references available from the U.S. regarding the impacts of personal water craft (i.e. jet skis), and although no work has been undertaken in S.A., many of the issues are relevant to GSV.
3.3 Overharvesting Of Living Resources
The 1993 and 1998 State of the Environment Reports recognised that most fisheries are operating at or above resource capacity. Furthermore, the status of knowledge for management is considered 'adequate' for only 5 of 27 fisheries in SA: blacklip and greenlip abalone, southern rock lobster, King George whiting and Australian salmon, and adequate for 'ecologically sustainable development' for only the abalone fisheries (Commonwealth of Australia 1991). This situation is exacerbated as effort shifts to species (e.g. calamary) that had previously not warranted relatively extensive stock assessment or research.

There has been increasing recreational effort, both in the number of fishers and their efficiency and increased access to fisheries through technological advances (e.g. GPS, radar). Half of the state's recreational catch is taken in Adelaide metropolitan waters, with the recreational share of catch for boat fishers typically between 13% to 35% per species but perhaps exceeding commercial sector in some regions (e.g. for King George whiting). Moreover, there is believed to be significant effort from illegal and 'semi-professional' fishing.

Collection of molluscs and worms for bait is extensive but unquantified. The inshore subtidal reefs of GSV, already decimated by spearfishing, face ongoing impact from a rapidly increasing population of scuba divers. The increased effort on crayfish from this sector comes at a time when there have been further allocations of recreational cray pots.

Other commercial impacts on living resources include the aquarium industry that targets a number of species including the protected leafy seadragons (under permit). The bioprospecting industry is currently in its infancy in SA waters.

The selective extraction of species, whether targeted or as bycatch, has the potential to diminish biodiversity at three levels:

  1. Genetic diversity of the harvested species (Leadbitter, Ward & Ridge 1999).

    Fishing acts as a selection agent to reduce the average size of a species. Examples from SA include:
    • the reduction in size of maturity of King George Whiting by 5cm over 30 years (Cockrum & Jones 1992).

    • reduction in annual growth rate of abalone populations from 30mm to 18mm over five generations (25 years).

    • In general, reduction of a species' genetic diversity makes it more vulnerable to environmental changes.

  2. The harvested species itself.

    Reduction in the abundance of a species may reduce it to a non-viable population and can make it more vulnerable to environmental changes, particularly for sedentary or long living fish.

    1998 and 1999 stock assessments for snapper have shown a severe decline in stocks in GSV. Commercial catches of King George whiting, tommy ruff, yellow-eye mullet and ocean leather jacket have all declined since 1990. Blue swimmer catches crab commercial catches have decreased in the last three years.

  3. The ecosystem role of the harvested species.

    selective harvesting of one or more components of a marine community undoubtedly also affects an animal's predators, competitors and prey, thus disrupting the food chain (Leadbitter, Ward & Ridge 1999). Studies comparing fished and unfished areas in Tasmania suggest that fishing can reduce the diversity of species by more than 30% (Barret & Edgar 1998), and ecosystems can become unbalanced with drastic results (e.g. Shepherd 1999).

    SA, the depletion of many of the top predators once common in the Gulf, including Southern Bluefin Tuna, School and Gummy sharks and Australian Sea Lions, is thought to play a major role in modifying ecosystems. However, the State-wide extent of fishing effort makes it difficult to quantify these ecological impacts as there are no control areas for comparison.
There has been an increase in the occurrence of marine diseases in GSV, particularly among molluscs. For example, abalone populations have shown regular diebacks since 1986, due to the high infectious parasite, Perkinsus.

3.4 Introduced Marine Pests And Other Invasive Organisms
The Center for Research on Introduced Marine Species (CRIMPS) identified a total of 25 introduced species in SA, most of these are located in the Port River- metropolitan Adelaide region, where shipping activity has been high (Furlani 1996). These are listed in Appendix E. Most have been introduced into gulf waters via the ballast water of ships.
There has been an increase in the occurrence of marine diseases in GSV, particularly among molluscs. For example, abalone populations have shown regular diebacks since 1986, due to the high infectious parasite, Perkinsus olseni (Goggin & Lester 1995). The pilchard virus is another example, with its origin from an introduced source not yet being ruled out.
Coastal dune environments are inundated with exotic species. For example, more than 40% of the species in the Normanville Dunes are exotic (Taylor, 1997).

4 Recommendations


The biological, social and economic importance to South Australia of Gulf St Vincent (GSV) and its concentration of population suggests that GSV requires more comprehensive management effort than indicated by its geographical extent alone. It forms a distinct bioregion within SA waters and warrants its own strategic, integrated, statutory management plan.

The Conservation Council recommends that such a Gulf St Vincent Management Plan must:
  1. be formulated in the context of revised legislation and administration arrangements, with integration between:

    • marine, coastal and catchment management.

    • the various agencies and spheres of government with jurisdiction over the marine environment.

    Every inquiry into coastal planning and management in Australia in the last 20 years, including the Commonwealth Coastal Zone Inquiry, has called for an integrated and strategic approach. The 1998 SA Coastal and Marine Conference unanimously endorsed the resolution that: "there is an urgent need for a new Coastal and Marine Planning and Management Act for coastal lands and waters, to replace the Coast Protection Act 1972" (Caton & Carvalho 1998).

  2. The Plan must be set within an 'ecosystem management framework'. There should be an emphasis on adaptive management and monitoring, with the development of ecological indicators and establishment of highly protected areas as benchmarks for measuring ecological sustainability elsewhere.

  3. It should include a single zoning plan incorporating all conservation, aquaculture, fisheries management zones and, where necessary, further zones to separate conflicting uses.

    Essentially the entire GSV would become a single, large multiple-use "Marine Protected Area", most of which would be IUCN Category VI, ie: managed for sustainable use. The primary objective of this MPA would be to provide a formal management framework for a broad spectrum of human activities, including shipping and the use or extraction of resources

    Within this large management area, smaller, high protection MPAs would be incorporated as necessary for research and monitoring (IUCN category IA), wilderness protection (IB), ecosystem protection (II), passive recreation and ecotourism (II), shipwreck protection (III) and fisheries management (IV). It is expected that there be considerable overlap between areas fulfilling these objectives.

    Currently, resources in GSV are exploited in a basically homogenous spatial pattern. The establishment of a reasonable number of high protection areas, appropriately sized and located, could significantly enhance the marine environment for a wide spectrum of uses and yet cause few impediments to ongoing recreational and commercial uses.

  4. It must acknowledge the poor information base, particularly with regard to ecological sustainability, and thus the need for a:

    • precautionary approach and application of precautionary principle to development approval and the expansion of fisheries or the aquaculture industry,

    • comprehensive research and assessment program with a focus on developing baseline data and indicators for ecological monitoring.

  5. It should recognise international and national obligations and responsibilities

  6. It must involve the community at all stages of management, with both education and consultation.

    • involve indigenous communities,

    • improve community access to information,

    • more transparent decision making processes within government,

  7. It must be provided with adequate resources for effective implementation, and

  8. be used as a model for developing management plans for other high-use bioregions, for example, the Upper Spencer Gulf.
This management plan would provide the framework for the following enhancements to protection measures in relation to the environment of GSV.


4.1 Conservation of Biological Diversity

4.1.1 Protection of Representative Samples of Ecosystems

The poor representation of different types of marine environments in SA's reserve system, and thus its failure to conserve the state's marine biological diversity, is acknowledged by the 1998 State of the Environment Report (EPA 1998), the SA Marine and Estuarine Strategy (SA Government 1998), and the recent comprehensive SARDI report on Conserving SA's Marine Biodiversity (Edyvane 1999a, 1999b).

Only 0.6% of GSV is proclaimed as some form of Marine Protected Area (MPA) (Edyvane 1999a), not necessarily giving high level of protection. The existing aquatic reserves were not planned for ecosystem conservation. Thus a number of habitats remain unprotected including offshore reef and soft bottom communities, sand areas, moderate to high energy coasts and rocky headlands, open water seagrass shoal systems, and deepwater habitats. Furthermore, recent research in Tasmania indicates that the existing reserves are too small to adequately protect the integrity of ecosystems and would need to encompass several kilometres of coastline (Barret & Edgar 1998).

The GSV bioregion as defined by IMCRA has been further classified at a lower scale as a result of benthic habitat surveys by SARDI. This work has defined 10 biounits with GSV and provides a framework for a comprehensive, adequate and representative reserve system in GSV.

There should be at least one high protection MPA (IUCN category I or II) in each of these 10 biounits. They should each of several kilometres extent and be set within buffer zones of low human impact. It is vital that these high protection areas be genuine "no-take" areas. Based on the findings from Tasmanian reserves, such areas would after a few years be likely to contain 30% more species than at present (Barret & Edgar 1998). Each of these reserves should have their own management plan within the overall GSV plan, with a strong focus on both compliance and education.

The areas of high conservation significance listed in the recent SARDI report on Conserving SA's Marine Biodiversity (Edyvane 1999b) is given in Appendix A. These were intended by the author as potential MPAs (pers. comm., Karen Edyvane).

4.1.2 Protection of internationally important wetlands

There are sites of outstanding environmental value in GSV which at present have no protected status even though threats have arisen to at least some of these sites. The lack of progress towards implementation of the promise made in the current government's election platform in 1997 to proceed towards nomination of appropriate parts of the Gulf as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention is a particular matter of concern.

The wetlands in the vicinity of the northern GSV are particularly vulnerable to sewage, thermal and industrial pollution, vandalism and the disruption of natural water flows (see Appendix B). All these threats could be confronted effectively by nomination of the eastern coast of the Gulf from Outer Harbor to the northern end of GSV, and south to Ardrossan on the western side, as a Wetland of International Importance followed by appropriate protection and management for which Commonwealth financial assistance might be expected.

Published counts of birds show that this coast have the required qualifications for such nomination. Most of the coast named is already owned or leased by authorities which have demonstrated their desire to preserve natural values (Cheetham Salt in the case of Price Saltfields, Penrice Soda Products in the case of Penrice Saltfields, the Department of Defence in the case of the Port Wakefield Proof Range, the University of Adelaide in the case of Buckland Park, and DEHAA in the case of Clinton, Port Gawler and Torrens Island Conservation Parks).

Whilst many of the problems associated with the Gulf St Vincent are primarily a state jurisdiction, the listing of a Ramsar area would provide the Commonwealth with a role through Ramsar's recognition in the new federal Environment, Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act.


4.1.3 Protection of rare, endangered and threatened species

It is important to recognise that MPAs are an essential but not sufficient component of biodiversity conservation management. Although many species are afforded specific protection through fisheries or other regulations, some revisions seem warranted:

  1. Despite the high level of endemism, there are only two fish species are fully protected in SA (the Leafy Seadragon and the Great White Shark). In the GSV the Western Blue Groper is partially protected, but appears to be exploited as by-catch.. This compares with nine species in New South Wales and a large number of species in Tasmania (including all species of the Family Sygnathidae – i.e seahorses). The SARDI report on Conserving SA's Marine Biodiversity includes a list of species recommended for full protection (Edyvane 1999a).

    The disproportionate number of Sygnathids in this list reflects recent research into this family and begs the question of what further research into other families may reveal about their vulnerability.

  2. Stronger protection is required for wide ranging predators and must consider their ecological role.

  3. A moratorium on permits for the collection of the "fully protected" leafy seadragon (Phycodurus eques) and other aquarium species until adequate knowledge of the population biology of such species has been acquired.

  4. A review of bag limits on molluscs including scallops (too high), black cowries (should be considered for full protection) and cockles (currently no bag limit). Controls on all bait species (including fish) should be considered.

  5. Effective measures for minimising impact from boats, jet skiis and planes during migration (May to September) on the "whale highway" westwards from Encounter Bay along the southern coast and through the GSV.

4.1.4 Promotion of ecotourism

The conservation of biodiversity will be facilitated by the promotion of low impact uses and industries such as those associated with ecotourism. The unique characteristics of South Australia's marine environments, ie high levels of species richness and uniqueness in comparison to the tropics, provide an excellent marketing basis. The opportunity remains with a number of lightly impacted areas, particularly on the north coast of Kangaroo Island, and more accessible areas along the coast of the southern Fleurieu and Yorke peninsulas.

The use of the marine environment for ecotourism is highly compatible with IUCN Category II and III MPAs, and is largely dependent on such no-take marine reserves near regional and metropolitan centres for easy access to un-fished, species diverse, marine environments.

There is a need to:

  1. develop a Marine and Coastal Tourism Strategy to give direction and sustainability to this developing industry.

  2. improve of facilities at key sites, e.g change rooms for divers at Port Noarlunga, Rapid Bay.

  3. develop of interpretation for snorkelling sites, ie Victor Harbor, Aldinga Reef, Port Vincent

  4. promote and integrate of existing Codes of Practice, ie. recreational fishing and off-road driving, whale watching and also, development of Codes for dive tourism, shark viewing, island visiting, temperate reef walking, yachting and boating.

4.2 Pollution

4.2.1 Oil

The "Operation Barossa" oil spill exercise held in Adelaide in 1998 highlighted the difficulties of trying to contain and clean up a minor spill of only 500 litres (c.f. the 270,000 litres spill in 1999).

An Australian National Audit Office (1995) report on Australia's ability to respond to a major oil spill recognised that Australia had little capacity in Australia to deal with large spills. That report identified a number of weaknesses in oil spill preparedness.

Moreover, the CCSA has uncovered a number of issues that should be addressed to reduce the incidence of oil spills and respond better to those that occur (see Appendix C). In particular, we draw the Inquiry's attention to this Appendix where we detail a comprehensive list of recommendations for Federal action (and a separate list for State action).

4.2.2 Nutrients

There should be an overall goal of zero discharge for pollutants harmful to human health or the natural environment. Specific measures include:

  1. development and implementation of local water quality management plans to address pollution problems caused by sewage, stormwater and agricultural runoff;

  2. increased marine jurisdiction and a water policy for the Environmental Protection Agency;

  3. support of the Environmental Improvement Programs for Bolivar, Glenelg, Port Adelaide and Christies Beach Wastewater Treatment Plants, which aim to reduce nutrient loads to Gulf St Vincent, and continue to promote and improve re-use of wastewater via methods such as wise use, agroforestry and groundwater recharge;

  4. licensing stormwater inputs as a polluting activity under the Environment Protection Act 1993, and encourage local catchment authorities to implement stormwater levies to fund ongoing monitoring and environmental improvement programs;

  5. license aquaculture activities as a polluting activity under the Environment Protection Act 1993, in recognition of the environmental impacts of aquaculture, and to provide a formal environmental regulatory and policy framework (including independent monitoring and auditing, Environmental Improvement Programs, best practices, guidelines and Codes of Practice);
4.2.3 Industrial pollution

Specific measures include:

  1. repealing the present indentures and exemption licenses under the Environment Protection Act 1993, including the Patawalonga, and implement procedures to regulate known polluting activities under the act.

  2. Introducing greater penalties for the destruction of ecological sensitive habitats (such as seagrasses, mangroves and tidal saltmarshes and rocky reefs).
4.2.4 Tributyltin

There is an opportunity to bring SA in line with other states with regards to tributyltin anti-fouling, and seek its elimination of use in our waters due to known detrimental impacts on marine life and potential impacts to sheltered water fish nursery areas adjacent to ports.

The list of existing international, national and state regulations is given in Appendix D.

4.2.5 Marine litter

There is a need for:

  1. continued monitoring and industry cooperation & education,

  2. alliances between environment groups and fishing and shipping industries to reduce litter at sea and other pollution,

  3. adoption of improved waste handling, waste minimisation and recycling measures by marine industries,

  4. elimination of packaging such as bait boxes that use plastic strapping which impact on marine mammals and seabirds.
4.3 Control of coastal and offshore development

There is a need for:

  1. Environmental Impact Studies for all subtidal and intertidal constructions including pipelines, marinas, harbours and mining or exploration tenements. No such constructions to be considered in designated high protection MPAs. The impacts of coastal strip development, including loss of sand dunes, construction of roads, and increased stormwater runoff, must also not be underestimated;

  2. adequate compliance controls for councils and state government with regards to planning and increased coastal development in regional areas;

  3. an update of coastal planning laws to include marine impacts, as per the recommendation for a Coastal and Marine Planning and Management Act, so that the new 'catchment to coast' management approached is reflected in law.
4.4 Ecosystem based fisheries management

Current fisheries management practice is based on state-wide stock-specific management, with little attention to the effects of fishing methods or selective harvesting on the integrity of the ecosystem. The benefits of 'Ecosystem-based management' are widely acknowledged but management authorities are lacking the necessary data to apply the concept in a "real world" situation. Thus it is necessary to:

  1. implement an ecosystem approach to fisheries research by complementing fisheries production and stock assessment research with essential environmental and ecosystem research.

    This should be funded by an environmental levy on all license holders to assist in research on the ecological and environmental effects of fishing (for eg. food-chain effects, bycatch, entanglements, etc.). A significant portion of any funds obtained through the licensing of the charter boat industry or recreational fishing should also be used for this purpose. Community stakeholders should be given more control over priority-setting for fisheries research.

  2. restructure the license system to implement regional fisheries, thus facilitating greater incentives for protecting ecosystem integrity.

  3. embrace MPAs as an essential tool for fisheries management purposes.

    A crucial component of ecosystem-based fisheries management increasingly gaining acceptance world-wide is the implementation of "no take" reserve areas. Such reserves can potentially provide insurance against stock collapse, banks for genetic diversity, protection of crucial habitats and sources of fish at different life stages. They require less data and provide a valuable tool for controlled monitoring of complementary fisheries management techniques.

    As outlined by the Commonwealth Action Plans for Australian Cetaceans (Bannister, Kemper & Warneke 1996) and Seals (Shaughnessy 1999) there is a need for precautionary ecosystems based fisheries management to allow for a resource allocation for the environment when setting fisheries quotas to ensure that resource requirements for marine mammals and other key species are maintained.

Other measures recommended include:
  1. reforming the SA Fisheries Act, in order to ensure representation on all Fisheries Management Committees of non-fishing stakeholders and community representative (ie. conservation, tourism, community, Local Government), as recommended

  2. developing, in consultation with industry, by-catch reduction or mitigation plans for state fisheries compatible with initiatives being developed for Commonwealth managed fisheries in state waters.

4.5 Ecologically sustainable aquaculture

There is a need to:

  1. ensure sustainable environmental practices through licensing all marine-based aquaculture activities under the Environment Protection Act 1993, and ensure that the long-term environmental monitoring of all sea-based aquaculture activities are a statutory license condition and that results are publicly available;

  2. ensure regulations to control stocking density are linked to an assessment of the 'assimilative capacity' of the aquatic ecosystem to absorb pollutants [note, CCSA advises caution with the approach to assimilative capacity - currently assimilative capacity when practiced elsewhere tends to be set at levels where the effects become visible eg: blue green algal blooms used to identify excessive nutrients in the system, therefore, assimilative capacity is exceeded. However, what level of damage has preceded the visible blue-green bloom?];

  3. develop and implement Codes of Practice, Environmental Improvement Programs, and research and monitoring policies, programs and assessment guidelines (in consultation with DEHAA, PIRSA and SARDI);

  4. ensure adequate funding is provided by industry to address the environmental impacts of aquaculture and research to ensure ecologically sustainable practices;

  5. ensure adequate reporting and compliance of entanglements through underwater video monitoring of cages, investigate alternative cage designs and acoustic devices to minimise wildlife entanglements but ensure that any use of sonic devices or other entanglement prevention measures developed by aquaculture or fisheries do not displace marine mammals from important habitats;

  6. ensure preservation of biodiversity and also, genetic diversity by prohibiting the translocation of species, including for commercial stock enhancement purposes;

  7. place a moratorium on marine aquaculture in sites of high conservation significance, as identified by SARDI (Edyvane 1999b), until the implementation of the SA representative system of MPAs.
4.6 Control of introduced marine pests

  1. Implementation of MPAs to provide low disturbance "firewalls";

  2. Education and awareness raising through community monitoring programs to prevent spread via fishing, boating or diving equipment;

  3. Dedicated resources for agency monitoring for IMPs and resource allocation to provide for rapid response to control outbreaks.
5 Conclusion

The Gulf St Vincent is of primary importance to South Australians, for the livlihood it provides, the public amenity, and its precious and diverse environment. Despite increased knowledge about the need for integrated 'catchment to coast' management, it is still suffering the tyranny of a million isoloated decisions, carried out by a myriad of different jurisdictions.

Despite the overall lack of knowledge about the real impacts of increasing development and use of this natural system, all the indicators we do have show it is in serious decline.

Other factors, not canvassed here, but which are becoming overwhelming globally, such as the effects of global warming, also need to be factored into the Gulf's management. Greater variations in range of termperatures, increased incidents of plankton blooms, etc all have implications for eco-system composition, such as the ability of the current suite of marine organisms to reproduce, and therefore the aspirations we have for the Gulf. We don't yet know what synergistic effect pollutants may have in the context of greater changes through developments such as global warming.

It is time for a priority to be placed on implementing integrated management of the Gulf, one which is underpinned by the capacity of the environment to host such activities, and one which has a precuationary approach. Anything less is not wise, or responsible management.

Appendix A: Sites recommended for increased protection

Areas which need improved protection through proclamation of marine protected areas under IUCN Guidelines For Protected Area Management Categories (IUCN, 1994) include:

Category lA - Strict Nature Reserve: Protected Area managed mainly for science

Area of land and / or sea possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems, geological or physiological features and/ or species, available primarily for scientific research and / or environmental monitoring.

Orontes Biounit

Salt Creek Bay IA
Oyster Bay – Port Vincent IA
Encounter Biounit
Pages Conservation Park IA - Increased protection (currently marine extension of Conservation park for issue and fee collection for shark berleying licences)
West Island Aquatic Reserve IA - further extensions of to include areas adjacent mainland
Sturt Biounit
Althorpe Island IA

Category lB - Wilderness Area: Protected Area managed mainly for wilderness protection

Large area of unmodified or slightly modified land and/or sea, retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural state

Clinton Biounit

Wills Creek – Clinton Conservation Park IB

Category II National Park: Protected Area managed mainly for ecosystem conservation and recreation

Natural area of land and / or sea, designated to

  1. protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for this and future generations,

  2. exclude exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designation of the area and

  3. provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible.
Sturt Biounit
Formby Bay – Innes National Park, (Gleesons Landing to Penguin Point) at least II
Waters adjacent to Port Davenport Conservation Park II
Troubridge Shoals – Marion Shoals ( currently Aqautic reserve at Troubridge Hill (460 ha) II
Clinton Biounit
Light river – Port River Estuary II
Yankalilla Biounit
Onkaparinga Estuary – Moana II
Aldinga Bay – Myponga Estuary II
Yankalilla Bay II
Encounter Biounit
Deep Creek– Newland Head II
Encounter Bay II

Category Ill Natural Monument: Protected Area managed for conservation of specific natural features

Area containing one or more specific natural or natural / cultural feature which is of outstanding value because of its inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic qualities or cultural significance.

All Biounits

All Historic Shipwrecks
Orontes Biounit
Black Point III
Tiddy Widdy III
Clinton Biounit
Zanoni Shipwreck III
Glenelg Shipwreck (dredge & Barge) III

Source: modified from Edyvane (1999b).

Appendix B: Potential Ramsar wetlands currently under threat

  • A regularly-used breeding site for several hundred pairs of Black-faced Cormorants on the Outer Harbor breakwater (which has potential for Ramsar as a smaller part of a Barker Inlet site), adjoining an unnamed sandy island which is a regularly-used breeding site for several hundred pairs of Australian Pelicans . Neither of these sites has any kind of protected status or is under any kind of management , despite their obvious vulnerability .

  • Industrial development on Pelican Point, close to Outer Harbor , threatens adjacent marine ecosystems and remnant native vegetation .A power station is now being built which will emit large quantities of warmed and chlorinated water into the Port estuary and will require a series of giant pylons likely to destroy remnant native vegetation (and reduce the aesthetic value of the area). A sewage outlet pipe is to be relocated adjacent to the proposed power station .Pollution of the estuary at this point is of particular concern owing to its proximity to Torrens Island Conservation Park, a breeding site for some species of water bird .

  • The interception of water upstream on the Gawler River has cut off nearly all flows to the Buckland Park reserve. This is close to and just inland of the Port Gawler Conservation Park. Buckland Park has been until recently an important breeding site for ducks ,and an important feeding site for waders (sub-order Charadrii). Continued deprivation of water is likely to cause extensive loss of vegetation which depends on occasional flooding.

  • The continued flow of treated sewage into the sea just north of St Kilda is causing extensive dieback of mangroves and seagrass . The extent of this dieback is illustrated in colour aerial photographs taken at different time periods in the Penrice Saltfields Office at Dry Creek.

  • Lack of protection from vandalism of Clinton Conservation Park north of Port Wakefield.

Appendix C: Towards an oil spill prevention and response plan

The Conservation Council of SA (CCSA) has identified the following information needs and other requirements for adequate prevention of and response to oil spills within Gulf St Vincent, and calls for the support of both Federal and State Governments to implement a plan.

The CCSA calls on the Federal Government to:

  • conduct a 'report card' style assessment to check progress in implementation of recommendations of:-

    1. Is Australia Ready to Respond to a Major Oil Spill? Australian National Audit Office, Auditor General Audit Report Number 9, 1994-95;

    2. The Ships of Shame Inquiry into Ship Safety, report from the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Transport, Communications and Infrastructure, December 1992;

  • conduct a review of oil and gas refineries in Australia, with terms of reference including current operational standards, day to day operations practices, safety and risk assessment, potential consequences of aging infrastructure and long term environmental and economic considerations;

  • reassess the National Plan to Combat the Pollution of the Sea by Oil, to ensure that adequate spill response equipment is housed regionally to deal with operational oil spills from refinery processes;

  • review the mechanisms by which national plan response actions are triggered, particularly with reference to what appears to be consistent initial under reporting of spill sizes as evidenced by the Pt Stanvac 1996 and 1999 spills, the WA Varanus Island Spill (July 99) and the Sydney Gore Point Spill (under reporting of spills at initial stages could compromise initial spill response effort and minimise containment and clean up efforts in the important first hours of response);

  • as part of the Oceans Policy implementation, review state legislation and agencies and make recommendations to ensure national consistency in oil spill response and prosecution of offenders;

  • consider implementing an industry cost recovery structure to enable the National Plan to Combat Pollution of Sea by Oil to meet costs of assessing the environmental impact of oil spills (this would encourage national consistency in impact assessment and an ability to recover true costs for environmental harm from oils spills outside of property damage and wildlife rescue and rehabilitation which can be currently be met by the National Plan);

  • ensure expedient resourcing for update of the Coastal Resources Atlases under the National Plan;

  • ensure resourcing for the expedient implementation of the National Plan to Combat Pollution of Sea by Chemical Spills;

  • establish guidelines for and identify areas where, various types of oil dispersants may or may not be used for clean up of oil spills.
The CCSA calls on the State Government to:
  • put in place mandatory requirements for independent safety audits at regular intervals for shipping facilities, and regular inspection of pipeline infrastructure - records of which are available in plain English form for public scrutiny;

  • put in place mandatory requirements for independent Environmental audit of long term monitoring of water quality and impacts to the marine and benthic environment;

  • undertake a legislative Review of the Pollution of Waters by Oil and Noxious Substances Act 1987 in order to strengthen requirements for stand-by response equipment and staff during operations, and increase fines and offences;

  • review the Environment Protection Act to strengthen the ability for the Authority to inspect, audit and where necessary, prosecute offenders;

  • review the Mobil Lubricating Oil Refinery (Indenture) Act 1976 and Oil refinery (hundred of Noarlunga) Indenture Act 1958 to incorporate mandatory safety audits for the refinery;

  • reassess the National Plan to combat the Pollution of the Sea by Oil to ensure that adequate spill response equipment is housed in South Australia to deal with a major oil spill from Very Large Crude Carriers and the daily refinery processing of 11 million litres of crude oil per day.

  • place on moratorium on the entry of Very Large Crude Carriers (>165 000 tonnes) to GSV until such time as:

    • an independent hazardous operations review of the refinery is undertaken - records of which are available for public scrutiny;

    • safety audits lodged with Department of Transport be placed in public domain;

    • an independent audit of the refinery including an audit of piping and infrastructure and LPG and unleaded petrol systems is undertaken and any work needed to upgrade refinery and port facilities is undertaken;

    • adequate stand by resources are available on site capable of handling VLCCs during offloading operations;

    • safety capability of mooring and wharf facilities are reviewed by an independent naval architect including independent testing of mooring hawsers and chains and pipelines and wharf structures – records of which are available in plain English form for public scrutiny;

    • Mobil release all previous feasibility studies on mooring systems to be available for public scrutiny;

    • Mobil make available copies of original shipping and port facility log entries for the 1999 and 1996 spills and other major incidents available for public scrutiny and provide a plain English explanation;

    • Mobil agree to undertake an upgrade of the whole length of undersea pipeline to replace pipeline components greater than 30 years of age;

    • mandatory requirements for regular visual checks by suitably trained personnel of pipeline area at all hours during pipeline operations including night time pumping;

    • an independent port audit be conducted to assess whether the current depth of water and port conditions are suitable for VLCCs to operate – records of which are available in plain English form for public scrutiny.

    An oil spill response plan should also consider:

  • contingency planning for major seabird and seal and sea lion colonies.

  • opportunities for training, involvement and resourcing of local government, community, fishing and conservation representatives in oil spill response and other emergency contingency operations with reference to spill remediation, wildlife rescue and rehabilitation.

  • restrictions on navigation, ship's tonnage or cargo type, or recommendations for pilotage near areas of high conservation significance, especially designated high protection areas.
Appendix D: Regulation of tributyltin use

International Ban on tributyltin (TBT) use

The use of TBT on small craft has been prohibited in many countries since the early 1990s. The World Wildlife Fund last year called for a complete global ban on the use of TBT. The International Maritime Organisation agreed in November 1998 to ban the use of TBT in antifoulants by 2003, with a 5-year period of phasing out. New Zealand and Japan have banned application of TBT in their waters and other countries are encouraged to follow. In European countries, where TBT use on small vessels has already been prohibited, improvements are starting to be seen with some estuarine levels of TBT falling to minimum detection levels.

TBT Regulation in Australia

The prime control across Australia is to restrict the release rate of TBT from marine coatings to below 5 micrograms per square centimetre per day (by standard test rate). Many States have other controls on vessel size and hull material. States also licence shipyards and slipways to cover application and disposal of hull coatings.

In South Australia, all vessels are allowed to use TBT containing paints. However, commercial boatyards and slips are licensed with the condition that they do not allow application of anti-fouling paints containing TBT with a release greater than 5 micrograms per centimetre per square per day. Better operation of slipways, particularly in careful disposal of old antifoulants removed from hulls, is reducing background contamination in many coastal rivers and harbours.

The ANZECC Antifouling code of practice

The ANZECC Antifouling Code of Practice identifies best practice for the application, use, removal and disposal of antifouling paints. The Environment Protection Authority has endorsed the code for South Australia. Application issues addressed include techniques for pollution abatement, specific requirements during applications for all vessels including small (<25m) and large (>25m). Maintenance requirements include the need for an appropriate facility above the tidal zone or in a dry dock. Removal processes are addressed in general, including releases to air and releases to water. Disposal procedures include treatment of all antifouling residues as contaminated wastes.

Appendix E: Introduced Marine Species in Gulf St Vincent

KNOWN Introduced Marine Pests in SA SA Distribution
Phylum Annelida Sabella spallanzanii Sabellid Fan Worm, metropolitan Adelaide coast (North Haven, West Lakes, Port River, Glenelg, Port Noarlunga)
Phylum Arthropoda Carcinas maenas European Shore Crab Barker Inlet, Outer Harbour, West Lakes
Eurylana arcuata Slater Port Noarlunga
Tanais dulongi, Tanaid
Phylum Chordata Ascidiella aspera Ascidian Gulf St Vincent
Ciona intestinalis Ascidian Port Adelaide, Outer Harbour
Botryllus schlosseri Colonial ascidian Gulf St Vincent, Yorke Peninsula
Styela plicata Sea Squirt Gulf St Vincent
Phylum Cnidaria Crassiopea ndrosia, Tropical Jellyfish Angas Inlet, Port River
Phylum Ectoprocta Bugula flabellata Bryozoan, Sea moss. Port Adelaide, Outer Harbour, northern Gulf St Vincent
Bugula neritina Bryozoan, Sea moss. Northern Gulf St Vincent
Cryptosula pallasiana
Barentsia benedeni
Phylum Mollusca Crassostrea gigas Pacific Oyster. adjacent to oyster leases at Nepean Bay)
Perna canaliculus, New Zealand Greenlip Mussel Outer Harbour
Maoricolpus roseus New Zealand Screw Shell West Coast of SA to southern Qld
Teredo navalis Ship's worm
Phylum Rhodophyta Polysiphonia brodiaei Red Algae Robe to Gulf St Vincent
Phylum Phycophyta Alexandrium minutum Dinoflagellate Port River
Discosporangium mesarthrocarpum
Spacella subtilissima
Zosterocarpus sp. Seagrass
Suspected Introduced Marine Pests in SA
Phylum Cnidaria Diadumene lineata Orange striped anenome Presumed, Barker Inlet, Port Adelaide
Phylum Annelida Boccardia proscidea Spionid polychaete worm Presumed, not known.
Pseudopolydora paucibranchiata Elkhorn slough spionid
Phylum Arthropoda Palaemon macrodactylus Oriental Shrimp, Grass Shrimp Presumed, not known.
Phylum Mollusca Musculista senhousia Asian Mussel, Presumed, gulf waters.
Mytilus galloprovincialis Mediterranean Blue Mussel Presumed, not known.
Phylum Ectoprocta Membranipora membranacea Bryozoan, Sea lace. Presumed, widespread.
Schizoporella unicornis Bryozoan, Sea lace Presumed, widespread.
Phylum Phycophyta Gymnodinium catenatum Dinoflagellate Presumed, known from Victorian border.
Alexandrium catenella Dinoflagellate

Table compiled from Furlani (1996), CSIRO website, SARDI Aquatic Science Centre and South Australian Museum sources. This is based on a draft composite listing compiled by the MCCN. For any additions or clarifications contact the MCCN SA.


Glossary

ANZECC Austalian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council
GSV Gulf St Vincent
IMCRA Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia
IUCN World Conservation Union
MARPOL (International convention on marine pollution)
MCCN Marine and Coastal Community Network
MPA Marine Protected Area
Ramsar (International convention on wetlands)
SARDI South Australian Research and Development Institute
SoE State of the Environment
TBT Tributyltin (an antifoulant for boat hulls)

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